MY FRIENDS by Hisham Matar

January 27, 2024January 27, 2024szfreiberger Historical Fiction, Literature Leave a comment

(Libyan Dictator Muammar Qaddafi)

The history of Libya from 1969 which saw Colonel Muammar Qaddafi seize power through the 2011 Arab Spring that resulted in his demise was wrought with murder, torture, assassinations, persecution, terrorism, lack of freedom, poverty, and victimization to a cult of personality. Those years produced many significant dates, all of which stand out for varying degrees of horror. On April 17, 1984. a crowd of anti-Qaddafi demonstrators gathered across the street from the Libyan embassy in London. During the demonstrations shots were fired from the embassy at demonstrators killing a London police officer and wounding 11 protestors. On April 5, 1986, Qaddafi was deemed responsible for the terrorist attack on a West Berlin discotheque that killed three and injured 229. Ten days later the United States retaliated striking military targets in Tripoli and Benghazi. On December 21, 1988, two Libyan intelligence officers planted a bomb that blew up Pan Am Flight 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland killing 243 passengers and 16 crew members. On December 21, 2012, following the overthrow of Qaddafi an attack by Ansar al-Sharia on the American diplomatic compound in Benghazi resulted in the death of US Ambassador J. Christopher Stevens and 3 others and injured 10. This would lead to a partisan congressional investigation that Republicans used to damage Hilliary Clinton’s presidential campaign. It is clear that during these years Libya was not a place where free thought and democracy existed, and today remains a failed state.

Libyan author Hisham Matar’s latest novel, MY FRIENDS tackles this time period focusing on the 1984 London shooting as the emotional center of the story. The book is narrated by a Libyan exile named Khaled Abd Hady, who left Benghazi in 1983 to study English literature at Edinburgh University and remained in London for thirty-two years. Khaled had been one of the demonstrators on that 1984 day alongside two men who would become his closest friends, Hosam Zowa, a writer who had decided to live in San Francisco with his family before moving to Paris, London and other venues, and Mustafa al Touny, a fellow student at Edinburgh. Matar, born in New York City to Libyan parents, and winner of the 2017 Pulitzer Prize for his memoir, THE RETURN, has authored a quiet novel that examines how the bonds of friendship are forged and fray over a lifetime.

Anti Gaddafi demonstrations outside the Libyan embassy, London 17th April 1984

(Libyan exiles demonstrating against the Qaddafi regime on April 17, 1984)

MY FRIENDS focuses on the relationship among three Libyan men whose lives intersect over more than three decades, from the mid-1980s through the aftermath of the 2011 Arab Spring that deposed Muammar Qaddafi after 42 years. The narrator, Khaled Abd al Hady, who left Libya to study English literature at the University of Edinburgh was inspired to pursue those studies by an enigmatic short story authored by Zowa, who vanished from the literary world after publishing a single story collection.

(It has been almost 40 years since Pc Yvonne Fletcher was murdered outside the Libyan Embassy. ‘She said, “good morning, what a beautiful day”, and five minutes later she was shot’)

There are a number of themes that dominate the novel. The concepts of liberation, exile, moral ambiguity, and friendship are all integrated into the story. Employing the musing of Khaled, Matar focuses on related themes asking the following; was it possible to live a happy life away from home, without one’s family? Second, is it true that all one has to do to survive is to endure each day, and gradually, minute by minute, brick by brick, will time build a wall? Third, What was it like to be a human being in a world where people are willing to crush each other?

These themes follow Khaled’s life for decades as he navigates the twin crises of exile and loneliness. Matar follows the interactions of Khaled and Mustafa, following their emotional, intellectual, and political development. Soon Hosam reappears out of nowhere which becomes the watershed moment in the novel. We follow the lives of the three exiles in beautiful detail as Matar is an exceptional writer who knows how to construct meaningful dialogue and scenery. Khaled will leave the university and wind up in London. After a few years he travels to Paris to be with his friend Ranan who leaves Libya for brain surgery in Paris. It is while he is in Paris that the man behind the desk at his hotel turns out to be Hosam rekindling their friendship. Along with Mustafa, Hannah, Khaled’s girlfriend, and Claire, Hosam’s significant other they form an engaging group whose dialogue absorbs the reader’s attention as they lay out their personal beliefs and how it relates to events in their home country.

By 2011, the Arab Spring broke out in Tunisia and soon spread to Tahrir Square in Egypt, and Benghazi and Tripoli in Libya. Mustafa who had been in exile for decades after witnessing the 1984 Embassy shooting cries at the possibility of ending Qaddafi’s tyranny and decides to return to Libya to fight for the emerging revolution. Khaled, despite the urging of his friend, refuses to return and fight as he is still traumatized by the wounds suffered at the embassy shooting. Matar creates many poignant scenes including Khaled’s father’s visit to convince him to return home, and Mustafa’s conversations with his mother as he fights for Qaddafi’s overthrow.

(Qaddafi’s body after being killed by Libyan revolutionaries)

Matar’s novel provides a vivid picture of Qaddafi’s rule which consisted of paranoia on the part of Libyan exiles living in Europe, and Libyan citizens who remained at home. A tight fisted dictatorship evolved into a “cult of personality” that the Libyan people were forced to endure. Torture, violence, harassment, loss of employment, poverty, assassinations in foreign counties were all elements of Qaddafi’s bag of tricks. This background forms the basis of Khaled’s fear of returning home, Mustafa’s transformation into a revolutionary soldier, and Hosam’s off and on writing which is responsible for the origins of their friendship.

Other important characters are developed. Dr. Henry Walbrook, Khaled’s literature professor becomes his friend and confidant. Mahammed Mustafa Ramada, the voice of the BBC Arabic World Service and journalist who read Hosam’s short story that fascinated and captured Khaled. Hosam Rajab Zowa, Hosam’s father who had been a supporter of Qaddafi and believed the embassy shooting was correct. What happens to these characters greatly impacts the lives of the three exiled friends.

Soldiers loyal to the head of Libya's Government of National Unity, Abdulhamid al-Dbeibah, sit in the back of a truck in Tripoli, Libya

(Fighting between the two most powerful factions in the capital could pose significant risks today, 2023)

Matar uses Hosam to present various literary ideas. Being a bibliophile, my favorite comments include Hosam’s remarks that “there was no point in owning a book unless one intended to reread it multiple times.” Further, he states “to have an endless number of books sit on the shelf just because one has read them or might one day read them is absurd.” However, I agree with his final commentary on books “like Montaigne, you believe that the very presence of books in your room cultivates you, that books are not only to be read but to be lived with.” What Hosam secretly found troubling was not the sight of a large number of books but the stability that such an acquisition assumes, which for him was very difficult to accept.

Matar brings closure to his story as the Libyan chapter of the Arab Spring takes hold. Khaled was afraid to return to Benghazi as he feared he would not be able to reconstitute his life, which had taken so long to accomplish after three decades in exile. He was afraid he would lose the security, emotional grounding and dependable relationships he had developed which his parents could not understand, producing a great deal of guilt. Mustafa did not suffer from these doubts as he returned and immediately joined revolutionary forces to fight to end Qaddafi’s tyranny. Hosam on the other hand will return to bury his father and please his mother. He still refuses to return to his writing and he falls in love as decides he must join the fight.

As Peter Baker writes in his New York Times book review Matar focus is on “the experience of Libyans seeking safety in exile. Matar — himself one such exile — picks apart their psyches, analyzing at a microscopic level how violence and migration have altered how they think and feel and relate to the people closest to them. He has returned to this cluster of topics as if it’s a house he’s obsessed with, examining it from different angles, sneaking inside and finding new rooms, even new wings.” “Readers encountering Matar for the first time will find in “My Friends” a masterly literary meditation on his lifelong themes. For those who already know his work, the effect is amplified tenfold. In the dark house Matar continues to explore, the rooms are full of echoes: The further in you go, the louder they get.”*

*Peter Baker, In ‘My Friends’ an Exile Finds Himself Outside Libya, but Never Far Away, New York Times, January 10, 2024.

(Libyan Dictator Mummar Qaddafi)

COLD VICTORY by Karl Marlantes

January 20, 2024szfreiberger Espionage, Historical Fiction Leave a comment

Russia Soviet Union Finland winter war ski patrol snow frozen soldiers

(Russian troops in Finland during WWII)

Russia has shaped twentieth century Finnish history due to the small nation’s proximity to the Slavic giant. Before World War II, the Helsinki government found itself dealing with a Russian invasion, during the war it suffered Nazi occupation leading to a reinvasion from Moscow that at the end of the war saw it loose roughly 11% of its territory to its Stalinist neighbor. Today Finland has reemerged as a pawn in Russia’s drive to recapture its empire. After Finland obtained NATO membership, Russian President Vladimir Putin has threatened Finland and with its long border the Finnish government must be prepared for any eventuality as the war in Ukraine grinds on, and as Republicans in the House of Representatives continue to block any aid for the Kyiv government. This landscape lends itself to a wonderful opportunity to create historical fiction involving the Russo-Finnish relationship. Karl Marlantes, the author of MATTERHORN, one of the most profound and disturbing novels about Vietnam, and DEEP RIVER, a wonderful and engrossing work of historical fiction centered on the experience of Finnish immigrants in the logging area of Washington state at the turn of the century, has filled that gap with his latest book, COLD VICTORY.

Those familiar with Marlantes’ previous efforts will not be disappointed with his current effort. Set in the heart of the emerging Cold War the Finns are caught between East and West trying to recover from the damage caused by World War II. The most important characters in the novel include Arnie and Louise Koski, a married couple who have been posted to Helsinki. Arnie is a Lieutenant Colonel in the US Army and has been appointed military attaché to the US Legation. Louise is a rather clueless “diplomatic” spouse who creates a number of issues for her husband and will learn many difficult lessons. Mikhail and Natalya Bobrov are in a comparable situation. Mikhail is the Russian military attaché in Helsinki and Natalya works at the Russian Legation. She develops a strong friendship with Louise as do their husbands, as both spies engage in intense competition with each other. Kaarina Varila, a Finnish relative of Arnie, and the Head of a Helsinki orphanage is emblematic of Finnish hatred of the Russians. Other individuals include Colonel Oleg Sokolov who is in charge of Soviet security in Finland as part of the MGB – the Ministry of State Security which is considered worse than the Gestapo. Sokolov is a sinister individual who is like a spider spinning his web of intrigue. Max Hamilton is the US Charge d’ Affaires at the US legation and Aleksandr Abramov is the Soviet Envoy.

Soviet Union Russia Finland winter war soldiers snow

(This is a Finnish light artillery squad on patrol duty in the Karelian Isthmus on January 3, 1940. Using white tunics over their heavy winter clothing to camouflage themselves, the soldiers took on the appearance of ghosts as they travel over the snow covered terrain)

Marlantes integrates a number of important historical characters in his story. Those who stand out are Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin whose motivations and realpolitik are on full display. Another is Lavrentiy Beria, Head of the MGB, and a man who strikes fear in all who come in contact with him. These and other characters highlight the author’s strong command of the history of the period. Further, he integrates a number of notable events and observations into his plot. Useful examples include a discussion of the Katyn Forest Massacre in 1943 as Beria ordered the murder of 22,000 Polish officers, and the history surrounding the 1944 Moscow Armistice whereby Finland was forced to pay a massive reparation to Russia and turn over a substantial amount of territory.

The story centers around Russian paranoia concerning Finland who they view as a threat to their security as a western invasion route against Moscow. The US on the other hand is worried about communist influence in the Finnish Parliament as they hold over one-third of the seats in addition to the presence of Soviet troops. Marlantes has created a espionage plot centered on raising funds for a Finnish orphanage which Louisa and Natalya work to support as they are heartbroken by the number of orphans that were created because of World War II. Second, the story is played out by the competition between Arnie and Mikhail who have challenged each other with a grueling ten day 300K ski race from the Artic Circle to Kuopio. The race became a metaphor for the competition between capitalism and communism and a pawn in the developing Cold War between the Soviets and Americans and should Mikhail lose the race the Stalinist regime would probably kill or exile him and his family to Siberia as he would be viewed as a spy and an embarrassment to Moscow.

(Karl Marlantes, author)

In developing the relationships among his characters, Marlantes juxtaposes the differences between the Soviet Union and United States, how both powers viewed the recent war, and their current distrust of each other as relations continued to deteriorate. The question in the background rests on trust, as each character seems to question the loyalty of those they deal with, not knowing who might be spying on whom. Marlantes uses Sokolov’s past life and current role as a vehicle to highlight the suffering of the Russian people during the war because of the Nazi invasion and a justification for its own invasion of Finland. Now that the Nazis are defeated his role is to root out internal enemies of the motherland and employ all the weapons of the Stalinist system – a system that fills the world with disinformation and deceit.

For Marlantes whether writing about Vietnam or post-war Finland, war is a confusing and rich world where death and bureaucratic stupidity abound. If one where to think about events in Ukraine today there is a similarity to what happened to Finland after the war. The significant difference is Ukraine has received enormous amount of western aid, and Finland did not. Marlantes has written a tight Cold War novel that draws the reader in and does not let them go until the book is read from cover to cover.

Russia Finland Helsinki winter war bombing trenches damage

(War between Finland and Soviet Russia started 22.45 o’clock (M.E.T.) on November 30, 1939. Trenches which were dug at the beginning of the Finnish-Russian tension in Helsinki, December 1, 1939)

THE WIZARD OF THE KREMLIN: A NOVEL by Giuliano Da Empoli

January 16, 2024szfreiberger Historical Fiction Leave a comment

(The Kremlin, Moscow)

Since February 2022 when Russia launched its invasion of Ukraine a plethora of books have been published or reissued that deal with the mindset of Russian President Vladimir Putin. The most important include works by Philip Short, Steven Lee Myers, Catherine Belton, Masha Gessen, Mark Galeotti, Owen Matthews, Luke Harding, Christopher Miller, Serhii Plokhy, Angela Stent, Shaun Walker, and Samuel Ramani. These authors explore Putin’s rise to power, his Pan-Slavism ideology designed to restore the Kremlin to its previous world power status, his domestic agenda, and the reason behind his invasion of Ukraine. These monographs are works of non-fiction and rely on intensive research that includes interviews with the relevant personages and scouring available documentation to foster insights and critical viewpoints. Turning to the fictional genre it has a recent addition to this subject matter with the publication of THE WIZARD OF THE KREMLIN: A NOVEL by Giuliano Da Empoli that attempts to explain Putin’s realpolitik and other aspects of his reign employing the format of a novel.

The central character in Da Empoli’s work is Vadim Baranov, a lover of literature, also known as “the wizard of the Kremlin” who was a television producer before becoming Putin’s political advisor. After fifteen years at Putin’s side, Baranov decides to escape Putin’s grasp and explain the inner workings of the Russian state where Putin’s sycophants and oligarchs battle for the attention of the Russian Tsar. Russia finds itself in a dark place because of Baranov’s work as the Kremlin “spin doctor.” Baranov is ensconced in a system he helped create but realizes he must leave – not an easy thing to accomplish in Putin’s Russia.

(Russian President, Vladimir Putin)

Da Empoli conveys his story by employing Baranov as a conduit for the narrator of the novel. The novel opens with an unnamed narrator visiting Moscow to research the early 20^th century writer, Yevgeny Zamyatin. It turns out that Baranov is an admirer of the novelist and through social media the narrator visits Baranov in his remote country house. As the novel evolves Baranov shares his life story with his visitor moving with energy through Russia in the 1990s to the invasion of Ukraine.

As the Soviet Union comes to an end in 1991 it appears that Russia may be on the verge of some sort of democratic edifice with the end of censorship and a new cultural freedom. As we know this did not come to pass and Baranov, who resented the new intelligentsia realizes that the future will belong to more practical individuals as a result he will join Putin as a political/media advisor and consummate insider. In this capacity Da Empoli relates Putin’s rise to power and through dialogue with the Russian autocrat he explains in rather crude form his view of power, how it should be used, and what it can accomplish – the restoration of Russia as a force in the world.

(Russian oligarch, Boris Berezovsky)

Da Emploi’s fictional account borders on reality as he weaves in historical events and characters into his novel. We are witnessed to Putin’s actions and reactions to the sinking of a Russian submarine in the Barents Sea in which the entire crew drowned; terrorist attacks by Chechen rebels that some believe was carried out by the FSB; employing Putin’s large labrador in a meeting with German Chancellor Angela Merkel, knowing her fear of dogs, among many other examples. Influential figures appear and reappear. Oligarchs such as Boris Berezovsky, a billionaire who for a time owned ORT the main Russian television station; Mikhail Khodorkovsky, an opposition activist who had owed Yukos, the largest Russian energy company; Igor Sechin, Putin’s Deputy Chief of Staff and energy issues who would eventually take over Yukos; Yevgeny Prigozhin, a gangster who became Putin’s caterer and eventually opponent, and other important individuals.

(Igor Sechin, Putin’s Chief of Staff)

Da Empoli employs a sarcastic sense of humor and a great deal of irony in carrying out his plot as he compares the old Soviet state to the nouveaux riche of the new Russia. Through Baranov’s autobiography the author offers interesting comparisons of Joseph Stalin and Putin, and descriptions of Russia in the 1990s when it seemed to be on the cusp of some sort of democracy with the present autocracy. Da Empoli explains the need of the Russian people for stability and unity after the chaos of the 1990s – for Putin this could only be accomplished through raw power, never admitting an error, appealing to Russian nationalism by calling for a restoration of its Soviet Empire, interfering with the internal mechanism of western democracy, and never giving in to those who oppose him.

The author is right on as he parrots Putin’s critique of Russian docility toward the west under Boris Yeltsin. As Baranov recounts “our docility called for the harshest punishment. NATO flooded into the Baltic States, and American military bases into central Asia. The oversight of financial institutions was no longer sufficient; now they wanted to take power directly. Send us back to the basement and replace us with agents of the CIA and the International Monetary Fund. First in Georgia, then in Ukraine, the very heart of our lost Empire.” For Putin, American actions in Ukrainian elections and its move toward the European Union and NATO was the last straw resulting in the invasion.

The book is ostensibly about cunning and the manipulation of reality as Baranov, a wonderful storyteller that the reader falls under his spell. Baranov uses his prowess of creating a new reality, a vision of Russian specialness, a new national myth, and cultivates grievances against the west carrying out Putin’s mission. Da Empoli has created an important character to carry out his novel in Baranov, a cynic who possesses sharp political analysis. His character is loosely based on Vladislav Surkov, a politician and strategist whose Machiavellian approach to politics made him a perfect advisor for Putin as he accompanied him from St. Petersburg to the Kremlin. The novel succeeds as a work of fiction, but its origin in reality makes you shudder as you read on.

(The Kremlin, Moscow)

NAPOLEON: A LIFE by Adam Zamoyski

January 10, 2024szfreiberger Biography, French History Leave a comment

French general and emperor Napoleon Bonaparte.

According to British historian Munro Price over 200,000 books have been written about Napoleon Bonaparte. There is a fascination with the French dictator that historians have addressed for over two centuries, and currently Hollywood has produced its own version of Napoleon. Today the most recognized biographies of Napoleon are written by British historians that include the three volume work of Michael Broers, and the single volume by Andrew Roberts which approaches 1000 pages. Obviously, if one is to put pen to paper concerning Napoleon, the result will be a rather long monograph. One of the latest contributions to the Napoleon genre is by Polish historian, Adam Zamoyski entitled, NAPOLEON: A LIFE though shorter than Roberts’ work by 250 pages it is a comprehensive look at the French leader that digs a little deeper into his thought process and ultimate decision making than previous works.

Zamoyski has written a thorough and workmanlike biography focusing on Napoleon’s personal life, domestic issues and relationships, his ideology, domestic and foreign threats to his reign, along with insights and details pertaining to the battlefield and the diplomatic movements of the period. In doing so the reader should acquire an intimate knowledge of Napoleon – what made him tick, what was his belief system, and determine his place in history.

François Gérard (1770-1837), Portrait of Josephine de Beauharnais, 1801, oil on canvas,... Josephine Bonaparte’s Gardens at Malmaison

(François Gérard (1770-1837), Portrait of Josephine de Beauharnais, 1801, oil on canvas, 178 x 174 cm/70 x 68.5 in. Hermitage Museum, Russia)

What sets Zamoyski’s work apart is the context that he places his subject. According to the author Napoleon should be seen as “a visible symptom of the sickness of the times, and as such bore the blame for the sins of all.” Zamoyski argues that Napoleon did exhibit extraordinary qualities, but in many ways was quite ordinary. To credit Napoléon as a genius for his many victories, overlooks the worst disaster in military history as he single-handedly destroyed the great enterprise he took years to create. Undoubtedly he was a brilliant tactician, but he was no strategist, as his miserable end attests to. Further, Zamoyski argues that Napoleon was not an “evil monster.” He was selfish, violent, and egocentric, but there is no evidence that he inflicted suffering needlessly. His motives and ambition are akin to Alexander I, Wellington, Nelson, Metternich, Blucher, Bernadotte and others whose careers adjoined Napoleon. In addition, if one examines British actions in India, Canada, and Egypt; Austrian measures in Poland and Italy; Prussian activities in East and Central Europe; and Russian movements across Central Asia, one should conclude he was nothing more than the embodiment of his age. Throughout the monograph Zamoyski develops these themes and integrates a great deal of Napoleon’s personal life and beliefs.

According to Zamoyski, Napoleon’s Corsican lineage plays a significant role in his emotional development and worldview due to how the French government treated his family and the Corsican people in general. As the French Revolution evolved into the “Reign of Terror” and the authoritarian rule of the Directory and the European wars that ensued Napoleon learned that the rules of chivalry did not apply, and only winning mattered. Zamoyski argues that “the dreamy romanticism of his youth had been confronted with the seamy side of human affairs, and at the age of twenty-four he had emerged a cynical realist ready to make his way in the increasingly dangerous world in which he was obliged to live.”

Zamoyski’s portrayal does an excellent job recounting Napoleon’s relationships with Josephine de Beauharnais who he married in 1805 and divorced in 1810, and Marie-Louise, the Habsburg Archduchess who took her place. The detail is striking, providing insight into Napoleon’s emotional state and his genuine love and caring for both women. At times Zamoyski goes overboard as he relates Josephine’s numerous affairs and Napoleon’s adolescent love for Marie-Louise.

Along with the women in his life Napoleon’s family is placed under a microscope, particularly his brothers. First, Lucien, a rather egoistic individual in his own right who helped Napoleon become First Consul during the Brumaire Coup and then lived his life according to his own needs rather than conforming to his brother’s wishes. Second, Joseph who believed he should have been the French Emperor, not his brother who reigned in Italy and later made a mess of his rule in Spain – a rather incompetent individual. Third, Jerome, a total military failure, and lastly, Louis, Napoleon’s favorite who would deal with psychological issues and became king of Holland but angered his brother when he refused to support the Continental system.

(Charles Maurice de Talleyrand)

A key component in understanding Napoleon’s mindset is his approach to diplomacy which for him was an extension of the battlefield. Zamoyski’s nimbly account recounts Napoleon’s negotiations and relationships with Austrian Chancellor and former ambassador to France, Klement von Metternich, Russian Tsar, Alexander I, Charles Habsburg, Holy Roman Emperor, and French Foreign Minister Charles Maurice de Talleyrand who initially supported Napoleon, but turned against him when he believed the Emperor’s expansionist policies went too far. Zamoyski integrates many other key figures into the monograph that includes lesser royal figures, French generals, Russian, English, Prussian, and Austrian figures. In reading Zamoyski’s account it conforms to A. J. P. Taylor’s classic THE STRUGGLE FOR THE MASTERY OF EUROPE, 1815-1848.

One can draw many insights from Zamoyski’s analysis as he argues that Napoleon was a dichotomy in that he felt insecure next to the monarchs of Europe because he lacked their “bloodlines,” as he referred to himself as “parvenue.” On the other hand, he saw himself as a supreme leader creating his own emperorship defeating the monarchies that he compared himself to. Zamoyski does a wonderful job describing the Napoleon-Alexander I relationship as the French autocrat had little respect for the Russian monarch but grew to respect him as he ultimately could not bend Alexander to his will despite professions of love and respect. Other important insights involve the opposition to Napoleon in France from Jacobins and Royalists. A number of coups are discussed, and it is clear in Napoleon’s mind that the only way to remain popular and maintain domestic support was to keep delivering victories on the battlefield as opposed to obtaining peace. For Napoleon war was the tool to tamp down unrest in the military and domestic sphere no matter how much opposition he encountered.

(Klement von Metternich)

Zamoyski relies a great deal on previous research particularly, Napoleon’s invasion of Russia. His decision making and battlefield conduct are laid out clearly as he quotes from his previous book, 1812: NAPOLEON’S FATAL MARCH ON MOSCOW. Particularly interesting is Napoleon’s admission that invading Russia was a grievous error – a rare confession. One of the highlights of Zamoyski’s work is his reliance on Napoleon’s remarkable correspondence, personal reflections, and notes left by those close to him to create an exceptional portrait of the French Emperor.

(Alexander I)

Zamoyski’s depiction of Napoleon is enhanced as he tackles his domestic program. The Code de Napoleon, the Concordat with the Papacy, and his educational system are well known, but reflect interests apart from the conduct of war. However, relying on Napoleon’s letters as he describes his cultural interests, his plans for museums, opera houses, wide boulevards and other cultural and architectural projects allowing the reader to acquire a sense of Napoleon’s desires, not only to conquer and spread his “continental system” throughout Europe, but also to encourage and foster intellectual pursuits.

Zamoyski’s achievement in this book is to bring to life Napoleon as a person, not just a military leader, and political ruler. He describes a man who viewed the world through the lens of a game of chess, and people, religion, morality, affections, and other interests as pawns in a game where pieces needed to be moved and used as the situation called for. To Zamoyski’s credit his monograph is eminently readable and deeply researched making it an important contribution to Napoleonic literature.