Month: November 2024

TARGETED BEIRUT: THE 1983 MARINE BARRACKS BOMBING AND THE UNTOLD ORIGIN STORY OF THE WAR ON TERROR by Jack Carr and James M. Scott

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(The scene around the U.S. Marine Corps base near Beirut, Lebanon, following a massive bomb blast that destroyed the base on Oct. 23, 1983)

On October 7, 2023, Hamas launched an unspeakable terrorist attack on Israel killing over 1200 men, women, and children, and seizing over 200 hostages.  The Israeli response was a brutal attack of retribution that has led to the death of tens of thousands of Palestinians and the evisceration of a significant part of the Gaza Strip.  Acting as an ally of Hamas and an Iranian puppet, Hezbollah launched a campaign of rocket attacks against northern Israel which led to over 60,000 Israelis abandoning their homes in support of their ally.  Recently Israel assassinated Hezbollah’s leader, Hassan Nasrallah, and a number of other officials who were set to take his place.  Once Nasrallah passed from the scene Israel launched an invasion of southern Lebanon and bombed any area of Lebanon which it deemed a stronghold of Hezbollah, including Beirut. 

These events remind one of the 1982 Israeli invasion of southern Lebanon as history once again repeats itself fostering the creation of Hezbollah due to Israeli military and diplomatic errors.  The introduction of Hezbollah to the world scene caused by the Israeli invasion would lead to the terrorist attack against the American barracks and headquarters in Beirut which resulted in the death of 241 Marines.  The full story as to how and why this occurred and its impact on American foreign policy and the Middle East region and its effect on the families of the Marines who served  is the subject of a  new book by Jack Carr, a former US Navy Seal sniper and author, and historian James M. Scott entitled; TARGETED BEIRUT: THE 1983 MARINE BARRACKS BOMBING AND THE UNTOLD ORIGIN STORY OF THE WAR ON TERROR.

American Marines search for survivors and bodies in the rubble, all that was left of their barracks head quarters in Beirut, after a terrorist...

(Marines searching for bodies after the attack)

The approach the authors pursue in relating their subject is somewhat bifurcated.  The narrative is broken down into three parts.  First, half and the most important part of the monograph seeks to relate the background for the attack on the Marine barracks on October 23, 1983,  beginning with the attack on the American embassy on April 18, 1983, and the evolution of Washington’s “peacekeeping mission” in Lebanon designed to curtail the factional warfare between Christian and Islamic forces centered on Beirut.  The authors expand their focus on American decision making, the dangers Marines confronted as they carried out their mission, and the debate as to how the United states should respond to the plethora of sniper attacks, suicide bombings, and artillery shells that landed on the Beirut airport, the location of the Marine barracks.

In the next section, Carr and Scott describe the truck bomb attack in detail that resulted in the death of 241 Marines and another 158 wounded.  They focus on rescue and recovery reflecting on the horror and other emotions displayed by Marines and others who charged into the debris to try and locate survivors.  The concluding section of the narrative brings into clarity the response of the Reagan administration to the calamity unfolding in Beirut and the decision making that led to the American response to the crisis.  In addition, the authors describe the agony faced by families and a final evaluation of the errors perpetrated by the Reagan administration.

All in all, the book is a useful retelling of events and the response of participants, but apart from exploring the private lives of numerous Marines and their families the book does not present any new detail.  The main criticism of the book is at times it rests on secondary sources to present its story.  The book relies heavily on journalistic sources, particularly that of Thomas Friedman of the New York Times, and Robert Fisk, of the Times of London, among others.  Once the authors move on to Reagan administration decision making and later the emotional trauma faced by surviving family members, Carr and Scott primary sourcing improves as they rely on interviews with survivors and families who for many will not get over the tragedy.

An American Marine Second Lieutenant stands with his back to rescue workers swarming the ruins of the American embassy after a suicide bomber...

(The Marine barracks after the attack)

The key event that would lead to the massacre of the Marines was the Israeli decision to launch “Operation Peace for the Galilee,” which was supposed to remove Palestinian Liberation Organization forces from southern Lebanon and push them twenty five miles north to the Litani River.  Many events altered the Israel strategy as they moved beyond the river into West Beirut.  Exacerbating the situation was the assassination of Lebanese president Bashir Gemayel, a Maronite Christian from Syria and his replacement by his incompetent brother Amin.  Israeli actions fostered the further radicalization of Islamic Jihad and Islamic Amal with the assistance of Iran’s Revolutionary Guards.  Originally greeted as saviors from the PLO, the Shiites in southern Lebanon grew increasingly angry against Israeli occupation leading to constant violence as Maronite Christians under the guise of the Phalangists fought various Islamic factions, in addition to an ethnoreligious group, the Druze. As the horrors of war evolved an international peacekeeping force made up of Americans, French, and Italians arrived on August 25, 1982, which eventually would lead to disaster.

The authors spend a great deal of time explaining the debate in Washington as to the mission of American forces.  The United States wanted to be seen as a neutral entity to try and win over certain factions to try and create a government of reconciliation.  However, as the United States armed the Lebanese army, it became the victim of numerous mortar and sniper attacks placing Washington in a quandary – if it retaliated it would no longer appear neutral – if they did nothing the Marines would become “sitting ducks.”  Carr and Scott delve deeply into the debate within the Reagan administration with Assistant National Security advisor Robert McFarlane and Secretary of State George Schultz advocating a forceful response after diplomatic attempts to convince Syrian president Hafez El-Assad to withdraw his forces from the Bekaa Valley failed.  Secretary of Defense Casper Weinberger and Vice President George Bush opposed the use of force, and Lebanese policy became hostage to the interpersonal rivalries within the Reagan administration.  Reagan and his advisors had difficulty making the tough decisions that were called for as the situation deteriorated.  Historians are handicapped even after four decades as some critical meeting minutes and documentary details remain classified.

President Ronald and Nancy Reagan view the coffins of victims killed in a bomb explosion at the United States Embassy in Beirut, Lebanon.

(Reagans Viewing Bombing Victims’ Coffins)

Perhaps the best sources employed by the authors are the letters written by Marines to their families in the United States.  The fears and hopes of the soldiers are on full display and it lends itself to a very personal examination of the crisis.  Carr and Scott try to humanize their subjects as they describe family reactions, funerals, phone calls from President Reagan, but the bottom line is the family members, members of Congress, and certain elements within the Reagan administration could not fathom how American policy in Lebanon served any purpose. 

The authors delve into the lives of many individual soldiers in their narrative.  Among those who stand out are Colonel Timothy Geraghty who took command of Marine operations in Beirut on May 30, 1983, who opposed changing the rules of engagement even after the American embassy bombing and the increase in factional warfare.  Lieutenant John Hudson who headed medical operations with fifty naval corpsmen.  Drs. Gilbert Bigelow and James Ware, dentists who would take care of the local Lebanese and did yeoman work after the attack on the Marine barracks.  Rabbi Arnold Resnicoff, Father George Pucciarelli, and Chaplain Danny Wheeler did their best to maintain the spirits of the soldiers under their command and bring solace and comfort after the debacle and other situations.  Hussein al-Mosur who headed Islamic Amal and Imad Mughniyeh who headed Islamic Jihad.  The two organizations would unite and form Hezbollah, “the Party of God” who perpetrated the attack on the Marine compound with the assistance of Iran.  Many other portraits are offered particularly after attacks and the ultimate explosion at the Marine barracks.

The authors do an excellent job conveying the angst that troops felt as they were sequestered in bunkers as rocket fire against their positions was almost constant.  The anxiety is conveyed in their letters home as their compatriots were killed or wounded.  An insightful example is a letter from Dr. John Hudson to his wife that reflected his anger, fears, and honesty evaluating what he experienced as useless sacrifices.  Hudson believed the Marines were “sitting ducks,” particularly when the rules of engagement would not allow them to return fire.  There are many other letter excerpts that reflect the untenable position the Reagan administration placed their soldiers in.

Vehicles destroyed in the bombing of the armed motorcade of former Lebanese Prime Minister Rafik al-Hariri, sit on a street Monday, February 14 in...

Carr and Scott alternate chapters between events on the ground in Beirut with that of decision making in Washington.  The problem that comes to the fore is the lack of continuity between the two. To their credit the authors are successful in capturing the harsh reality of life in Lebanon during the period presenting heart rendering vignettes describing the lives of the Lebanese people.  In the end there was to be no large-scale US military operation targeting those responsible for the bombing.

The book is an important one because of the lessons learned and those that should be learned today.  The War on Terror did not begin until after September 11, 2001, however it was the 1983 bombing that was the precursor to a broader general global strategy to deal with terrorism.  The attack highlighted vulnerabilities in dealing with terrorist threats and greatly influenced the evolution of Washington’s counterterrorism goals.  In addition, the Israelis seem to be on the verge of repeating the errors of the early 1980s.  The Netanyahu government’s actions in southern Lebanon and Beirut may seem like victory, but since there does not seem to be an end game (as is the case in Gaza), Israel will foster the next generation of Hezbollah/Hamas types that will emerge. It seems every decade or so Israel plays Whack a mole which in the real world is not a substitute for concrete policy to achieve long lasting change or at a minimum a reduction of tension.

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(The scene around the U.S. Marine Corps base near Beirut, Lebanon, following a massive bomb blast that destroyed the base on Oct. 23, 1983)

THE WIDE WIDE SEA: IMPERIAL AMBITIONS, FIRST CONTACT AND THE FATEFUL FINAL VOYAGE OF CAPTAIN JAMES COOK by Hampton Sides

szfreiberger Biography, British History, Maritime History Leave a comment
Captain James Cook (1728-1779): the British explorer and his sailing crew were the first to Westerners to document wave-riding and surfing | Illustration: Creative Commons

(Captain James Cook)

One of the most important questions in evaluating the men that made up the Age of Exploration rests on their motivation.  Were they driven by visions of wealth or conquest as most were or was it the desire to map the 18th century world for future generations? For the explorer, James Cook, it is in both categories.  In Hampton Sides latest work, THE WIDE WIDE SEA: IMPERIAL AMBITIONS, FIRST CONTACT AND THE FATEFUL FINAL VOYAGE OF CAPTAIN JAMES COOK, the author argues that Cook was a map maker and explorer, not a conqueror or colonizer.  A number of historians would dispute Side’s arguments, but it is clear that the worst elements of colonization manifested themselves after Cook’s death. 

For many, Cook has become the “Columbus of the Pacific,” something Sides has difficulty accepting.  The author argues in his introduction that after providing information about Cook’s earlier voyages he would focus on his third and last expedition presenting the Captain’s goals and assumptions in all their flawed complexity.  Sides’ monograph is not one of hagiography as he does not attempt to lionize or demonize his subject.  The goal was to describe “what transpired during his consequential, ambitious, and ultimately final voyage.”

HMS Endeavour: a replica of the research vessel on which James Cook sailed to Australia and New Zealand on his first voyage of discovery from 1768 to 1771 | Photo: Shutterstock

(HMS Resolution)

It is clear that the credit that Cook earned in discovering certain geographical areas is mistaken as lands that figured into Cook’s drama were founded or settled earlier by other explorers like the ancient Polynesian wayfarers or Spanish sailors.  It is probably more accurate to argue that Cook and fellow seamen were merely visitors to the areas he is given credit for locating, not the discoverer of those regions.  As with all of his books, THE WIDE WIDE SEA is heavily researched, based on logs and journals prepared by Cook and other expedition participants, in addition to oral histories similar in his approach in previous books like; HELLHOUND ON HIS TRAIL, BLOOD AND THUNDER, AND IN THE KINGDOM OF ICE and others.  He has produced a fast paced adventure story that takes place on the high seas and is an important examination of the complexities and impact of the Age of Discovery.

Cook’s voyages can be described as one of cultural clashes as he and his crew came upon Polynesians, Inuit tribes, Alaskan natives, and other indigenous peoples.  In coming in contact with indigenous peoples many misunderstandings occurred as the concept of private property held by Europeans conflicted with the idea of communal sharing held by native peoples.  Unfortunately, what one group saw as sharing in communal fashion, the other saw as theft which at times resulted in violent punishment.

Sides begins his story with a character portrayal of Cook  who is described as adopting Quaker values from his training – temperance, frugality, modesty, truthfulness, and a ferocious work ethic and a disdain for arrogance and ostentation, all features of his personality that appear throughout the book.   He was very direct and always strove for simplicity.  Interestingly Sides points out that we know little of his emotional world despite the many journals little of it shines through.  “There were depths, but the soundings were few…. he was describes as a navigational machine.”  Sides goes on to describe Cook’s approach to navigation  and command allowing the reader to feel they have gotten to know him somewhat – which is useful in gaining an understanding of his decision making and behavior.  He was far from being romantic, if he was anything it was as a professional map maker with little regard for sentiment as he tried to make sailing a science.  Cook was an unassuming man who was “respectful of local people and kept his ear attuned to what had come before.”

1 A map showing the route of the Resolution and Discovery during the Third Voyage, prior to Cook's death, in red, and subsequently, in blue (https://en.wikipedia.org) 

Bay of Karakakooa at Owhyee Bay of Karakakooa at Owhyee, or Hawaii, where Captain James Cook was killed. 1873 james cook stock illustrations

Overall Cook’s interaction with indigenous people were peaceful, but there were exceptions.  One in particular was extremely egregious as he was intolerant of theft.  He easily got along with native leaders and fostered trade with any tribe or group he came in contact with, however, if stealing was involved he became a different person and unleashed extreme punishments as was the case when a sextant was stolen on one of the Tahitian islands.  During Cook’s first two voyages he exhibited a high degree of tolerance of native populations and his own crew.  However, he seemed to change as the third voyage evolved, shocking his men.

One of the highlights of Sides’ commentary is his anthropological summations of the areas that Cook visited.  The description is a sailing itinerary that highlights the natives, their lifestyle, how they interacted with their crew, the types of flora and fauna, animals and other important items he came in contact with.  The sailing part is most interesting as Sides described the hazards and difficulties that Cook, and his crew confronted.  First and foremost were the many leaks that the HMS Resolution suffered.  It was obvious that the construction of the ship lacked quality and there was constant need to repair leaks.  Weather obviously was a challenge with high seas, extreme wind, fog, rocky coastlines, underwater obstacles, etc.  But even though Cook exhibited less leniency and patience he still maintained the respect of his crew for the most part.                      

Of the many characters that Sides introduces perhaps the most important was Mai, a native of Raiatea, a volcanic island 130 miles northwest of Tahiti who earlier was brought to England by Captain Tobias Fornaux of the HMS Adventure.  Mai had his own agenda for requesting passage to England dealing with the Bora Borans, the enemy of his people.  Aside from those details, Mai’s presence allows Sides to explore the Tahitian culture and social system.    Cook viewed Mai favorably but at times frowned upon his obsessions flaunting the wealth he acquired in London, and his decision making.  When the Admiralty decided Mai must return home Cook was given the charge to transport him and leave him in Tahiti during his voyage.  The Cook-Mai connection provides insights into the behavior of indigenous people and what motivated them.   Sides employs Mai as a beacon to describe the first two years of the voyage.  His language skills, planting, hunting talents, navigation mastery contribute to Cook’s early success and knowledge of native culture.  Once Mai left the expedition he would not live long, dying at age twenty-seven, and in the end was known as “the gentle savage.”

Captain James Cook be killed 1779 on Hawaii Steel engraving death of Captain James Cook on 14 February 1779 on Hawaii Captain Cook stock illustration

(Steel engraving death of Captain James Cook on 14 February 1779 on Hawaii)

Other characters are dealt with in depth including William Bligh, who Cook respected throughout the voyage.  Bligh would gain greater notoriety as the Captain of the HMS Bounty, which suffered a mutiny which became the subject of a fascinating novel written in 1932 by Charles Nordhoff and James Norman Hall. Another important character was William Anderson, a surgeon whose curiosity would benefit mankind.  Captain Charles Clerke, Cook’s friend who led the HMS Resolution as part of the expedition.   John Ledyard, a Connecticut American who attended Dartmouth and had previously sailed to Gibraltar and the Barbary coast before being impressed into the British navy.  His written descriptions appear throughout the book and are a treasure to read as were the perceptive writings of Lieutenant John King, who would become Cook’s right hand man as they reached Hawaii after traveling down from the Arctic Circle.  King’s relationship with Cook was important as he became his sounding board as he was well read and a natural diplomat.

A key theme Sides develops centers around Cook’s instructions from the Admiralty which stressed the goal of locating the Northwest Passage across the top of North America.  Repeatedly Cook’s decisions were loyal to the Admiralty, though he did veer away from the overall plan periodically. A major example is his exploration of the Alaskan coast, the Bering Sea as he made his way to the Arctic.  Once there he realized that the ice was so extensive  at that time of year that it could not be penetrated.  He decided to sail south and return during a warmer season lengthening time frame. But as he made decisions, his instructions were his foremost concern.   The key to the expedition was to expand European power and would assist in laying the basis of later colonization even if that were not Cook’s personal goal.  Cook was an explorer-scientist, not an imperialist.

As the monograph evolves, Sides pays particular attention to explorers who came before Cook.  Credit is given to Spanish explorers and their findings, as is the work of George Vancouver who was part of Cook’s crew, who fourteen years later discovered the city and islands that bear his name, but as far as the Russians were concerned their expeditions produced inaccurate maps that Cook had to correct as he transversed the coastline of Alaska.   Sides also stressed the role of the American revolution which was occurring simultaneously and its impact on Cook’s expedition.                         

James Cook: Pacific voyages

(James Cook’s three Pacific voyages).

Cook’s personal decline leading to moral collapse by the third year of the voyage is a matter of debate among historians.  But one can never discount his journals and ship logs, which dedicate hundreds of thousands of words to oceanic data as Cook was a “navigational machine.”  Cook’s death is shrouded in violence as he revisited Hawaii on his return voyage.   As Doug Bock Clark points out in his New York Times review entitled “Capt. Cook’s final voyage to the Pacific islands gets a close examination,” June 9, 2024, p. 22 ;  “ In the end, Mai got his guns home and shot his enemies, and the Hawaiians eventually realized that Cook was not a god. After straining their resources to outfit his ships, Cook tried to kidnap the king of Hawaii to force the return of a stolen boat. A confrontation ensued and the explorer was clubbed and stabbed to death, perhaps with a dagger made of a swordfish bill.

The British massacred many Hawaiians with firearms, put heads on poles and burned homes. Once accounts of these exploits reached England, they were multiplied by printing presses and spread across their world-spanning empire. The Hawaiians committed their losses to memory. And though the newest version of Cook’s story includes theirs, it’s still Cook’s story that we are retelling with each new age.”

james cook

(Captain James Cook)