UNCONDITIONAL: THE JAPANESE SURRENDER IN WORLD WAR II by Marc Gallicchio

December 14, 2021szfreiberger American Diplomatic History, World War II Leave a comment

Japanese Foreign Minister Mamoru Shigemitsu, seated, signs the Japanese surrender document on the Missouri in Tokyo Bay on Sept. 2, 1945.

(Japanese surrender on USS Missouri after WWII)

The death of Franklin D. Roosevelt in April1945 vaulted the inexperienced Harry S. Truman into the Oval Office. As Vice-President Truman was kept in the dark by Roosevelt on many issues including the Manhattan Project which would later result in dropping two atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in early August 1945. However, before the Enola Gay released its first bomb, American policy to end the war in the Pacific rested upon the phrase “unconditional surrender” a term uttered by Roosevelt at the Casablanca Conference attended by Winston Churchill in January 1943. The policy was employed to avoid any possibility that the defeated powers of Germany and Japan would later question whether they were defeated militarily as occurred following World War I.

The application of “unconditional surrender” to the Pacific Theater is the subject of Villanova Professor Marc Gallicchio’s latest monograph, UNCONDITIONAL: THE JAPANESE SURRENDER IN WORLD WAR II. A major focus in Gallicchio’s narrative is the role of Truman and a cadre of individuals that includes Henry L. Stimson, Joseph C. Grew, James Forrestal, George C. Marshall, Dean Acheson, Herbert Hoover, and numerous others in debating the policy of “unconditional surrender,” with an eye on the role of the Soviet Union, China, and Japan in the post war world. Though Truman was a novice in foreign policy he held a number of strong views concerning uprooting Japan’s military and its ideology and replacing the imperial monarchy with a pro-western democracy.

After the war, the United States would help with the reconstruction of Japan and impose a new constitution on the defeated country. As Japan flourished she would become a staunch ally that stood firmly against the rise of communism in China and a supporter of Washington’s overall all policy for Asia. The end result was that the United States avoided creating a revanchist regime in Tokyo.

A second major emphasis in Gallicchio’s presentation is how policy decisions evolved and the application of his own insightful analysis throughout. He reconstructs events and delves into the arguments of the major personalities that led to the Japanese surrender on the USS Missouri staged in Tokyo Bay in September 1945.

Gallicchio begins by explaining the origins and rationale for “unconditional surrender” as a means to reassure the Soviet Union that there would be no separate peace. Russia would come to an agreement that once Germany was defeated they would shift troops to the Pacific and help end the war against Japan, but as in all cases in dealing with Joseph Stalin, Moscow had its own agenda for northeast China once the Japanese withdrew.

Joseph Grew wwwnndbcompeople023000054858grew083201jpg — (Former US Ambassador to Japan, Joseph C. Grew)

Gallicchio exhibits an excellent command of the secondary and primary materials dealing with his topic and offers a concise application of the documentary evidence in developing his conclusions. In addition, he considers the analysis offered by previous historians who have engaged the late World War II and early Cold War period. For example, he reviews the Yalta and Potsdam Agreements in his treatment of the “Stalin Issue,” and how the World War II alliance of convenience unraveled despite Washington’s need for Soviet troops to help defeat the Japanese military. Truman was very concerned that the US should try and defeat Japan as quickly as possible to avoid creating a vacuum in the region that could easily be filled by Moscow. Aside from the cost of an American invasion of the Japanese home islands this was a major rationale for Truman’s decision to drop the atomic bombs to end the war as quickly as possible.

The author’s analysis includes a deep dive inside the Japanese military hierarchy, cabinet, and bureaucracy and summarizes the views of the different factions that emerged as it was confronted by America’s policies toward surrender and the future role of the Emperor. Gallicchio spends a substantial amount of time discussing the peace faction that surrounded Emperor Hirohito as it tried to fend off the militarists who believed that if the war could be drawn out further, with Germany defeated domestic pressure in the United States would result in Washington’s acquiescence to a lesser policy than offered by complete surrender, military occupation, and retention of the Emperorship. Further, the military believed that the Soviet Union could become a useful tool in pressuring the United States to alter its position, in addition to what they perceived as a weakening of the allied alliance.

refer to caption

(Portrait of Herbert Hoover)

A major strength of Gallicchio’s work is his exploration of the American home front as the war was ending. Truman was under a great deal of pressure to end the war since Germany was defeated. Public opinion polls pointed to the desire to bring the troops home and reconversion to a domestic economy and not allowing the Pentagon to dictate economic policy.

Gallicchio emphasizes the role of American code breaking as the United States collected a great deal of information through MAGIC decrypts of Japanese diplomatic messages and analysis of Japanese troop dispositions, which were processed through a military intelligence program code-named ULTRA. These two sources tried to keep Washington one step ahead of Japan throughout most of the war.

Gallicchio is correct when he argues that the Potsdam Conference played a significant role as it became increasingly clear that there was little Washington could do to keep the Russians from seizing large parts of Manchuria, even if Japan was defeated before Soviet troops entered China. However, it is during the conference that Truman learned of the successful test of the atomic bomb providing him with a major tool in dealing with Stalin and ending the war as rapidly as possible. Truman was ill disposed to making any special guarantees to the Emperor who he believed was as much of a war criminal as Hitler and Mussolini. But Truman also realized that he would need Hirohito to facilitate the surrender of Imperial troops. In the end Truman would accept the Emperor as a glorified figurehead, hopefully avoiding a resurgence of Japanese nationalism in the future.

Henry Stimson : News Photo — (Secretary of War, Henry L. Stimson)

The end of the war did not end the debate over the “unconditional surrender“ policy. Gallicchio dissects the revisionism put forth by those who blamed the policy of “unconditional surrender” for causing the problems in the immediate post war era that led to communist domination of Asia. Gallicchio does an excellent job in his last complete chapter in presenting the arguments pro and con whether the Emperor was a peace candidate. He also extrapolates that if the Truman administration had been willing to alter the policy and state that Washington had no intention to outlaw the monarchy the dropping of the atomic bomb would not have been necessary, the Soviet Union would not have entered China, and by 1949 Maoist forces would not have seized power in Beijing. This revisionism is incorrect and reflects the inability of certain individuals including Herbert Hoover and Admiral William D. Leahy, Roosevelt’s Chief of Staff among others to accept the reality of the military-political situation within the Japanese establishment where the military dominated the government and in the case of Hirohito he did nothing to alter the conduct of Japanese forces throughout the Pacific. Gallicchio continues his presentation by reviewing the historiography of his subject well into the mid-1990s and the cultural politics that ensued.

Gallicchio offers a tightly focused narrative that lays out the pros and cons of America’s policy of “unconditional surrender” in the Pacific at the end of World War II. It is concisely written and stays on target with little or no meandering to other issues. The book is a fresh look at the drama that unfolded at the end of the war and an important synthesis of what has been written before and encapsulates the important debates that led to the dropping of the atomic bombs and America’s occupation of Japan that ensued.

(Japanese surrender, USS Missouri, September 1945)

THE LINCOLN HIGHWAY by Amor Towles

December 8, 2021szfreiberger Fiction/Literary, Historical Fiction Leave a comment

Image 1 - 1946 Studebaker Coupe Auto Car Ad Refrigerator / Tool Box Magnet

After creating two the national bestsellers, RULES OF CIVILITY and A GENTLEMAN IN MOSCOW, Amor Towles has now offered his third novel, THE LINCOLN HIGHWAY which has also received praise from many quarters. The book approaches a ten day period in June 1954 involving four major characters as their journey culminates in New York City. The story is told from multiple points of view, which has become a staple in Towles’ novels. The story begins with Warden Williams returning Emmett Watson to his home Morgen, Nebraska after serving an eighteen month sentence at the Salina, Kansas youth home for manslaughter. After Watson has been delivered to his house he discovers that two inmates from the farm, Woolly Walcott Martin and Daniel (Duchess) Hewett have hidden in the warden’s trunk as a means of escaping the farm. These three characters along with Emmett’s brother Billy are the vehicle from which the stories embedded in the novel are told.

After their farm is foreclosed upon following the death of their father, Emmett and Billy decide to head to California to try and locate their mother who had abandoned them a decade ago. Their plans change when Duchess and Woolly abscond with Emmett’s Studebaker and travel to New York. The novel builds on this framework developing many interesting situations and characters highlighted by Towles approach to life and the foibles of people.

Towles does a superb job framing scenes and is a master of dialogue be it a discussion of Kazantis the escape artist or the philosophical approach to life of Ulysses Dixon, “a large negro” who will save Billy’s life while traveling on a freight train. Towles creates delightful characters that will capture the reader’s attention throughout the novel. For example, Emmett’s search for cereal in the General Mills freight car that he and Billy had stolen a ride on to catch up to Duchess and reclaim the Studebaker. It is on that freight car that Pastor John appears who informs Billy that he is a real pastor “like my namesake John the Baptist, my church is the open road and my congregation the common man” that things will become interesting.

Of all the characters that Towles creates, Ulysses is the most interesting. Ulysses’ story is a sad one as he volunteered for military service in 1943 against the wishes of his wife who was pregnant and when he returns following the war they are nowhere to be found. Ulysses punishes himself by living in a homeless community under a bridge in New York City and traveling the country using freight trains as a means of transportation. Towles use of Homer’s THE ILIAD is a remarkable tool to gain insight into Dixon’s life and what the outcome of his journey might turn out to be.

As Towles tells his story through the lens of the four main characters and a few ancillary ones the reader gains diverse perspectives about the same scenes and events and provides a greater understanding of human nature than focusing on only one perspective. Towles is a marvelous storyteller with a keen eye concerning human relations and their attitude towards life’s vicissitudes. Towles integrates a number of unusual analogies, for example, comparing the Salina youth farm with Alexandre Dumas’ THE COUNT OF MONTE CRISTO among many others.

Towles provides an accurate view of the 1950s through the landscape of the Lincoln Highway which connects Times Square in New York to San Francisco. As Towles characters travel across America underlying themes of ant-communism, anti-Semitism, racism, and socio-economic inequality come to the fore. Towles eye for detail is astonishing as he explores American culture employing diverse examples including; a Coup Deville, a Playtex bra, cans of Chef Boy-Ardie, television programs from Dragnet to the Long Ranger and others too numerous to mention.

The novel revolves around Emmett’s search for Duchess and their coming together in New York. The travail’s they experience, include Woolly and Billy, along with the family baggage they carry around. The adventures that emerge are entertaining, thoughtful, and easily maintain the reader’s attention. The commentary offered by Emmett, Duchess, Woolly, and Billy stand out in terms pathos, empathy, humor, and the serious nature of the lives they are living. Towles use of Professor Abacus Abernathe’s COMPENDIUM OF HEROES, ADVENTURES, AND OTHER INTREPID TRAVELERS, a red book carried by Billy everywhere describing 26 heroes from Achilles to Zorro is an excellent source to present past history and how it affects the present. Towles scenes where Billy meets the professor is unusual, and extremely important.

Times Square

One of the many strengths of THE LINCOLN HIGHWAY is Towles knack of introducing new characters then delving into their personal stories. Through their recounting we learn a great deal about America ranging from life in an orphanage in Nebraska, a youth facility in Kansas, Harlem neighborhoods, Manhattan to the Adirondacks. Towles has produced a sweeping book that is as much about literary history of the road novel as it is about one engaging journey.

Chris Bachelder is dead on in his November 7, 2021, New York Times book review when he writes; At 600 pages, “The Lincoln Highway” is remarkably brisk, remarkably buoyant. Though dark shadows fall across its final chapters, the book is permeated with light, wit, youth. Many novels this size are telescopes, but this big book is a microscope, focused on a small sample of a vast whole. Towles has snipped off a minuscule strand of existence — 10 wayward days — and when we look through his lens we see that this brief interstice teems with stories, grand as legends.

THE FIELD OF BLOOD: VIOLENCE IN CONGRESS AND THE ROAD TO CIVIL WAR by Joanne B. Freeman

November 30, 2021szfreiberger American Civil War Leave a comment

Compromise of 1850 — (Congressional debate, 1850)

A few days ago, the United States Congress voted to censure Representative Paul Gosar, an Arizona Republican after he posted and edited anime video to his social media accounts that depicted violence against Democratic Congresswoman Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez of New York and President Biden. This along with metal detectors at entrances to the House and Senate, repeated threats of violence against members, heated rhetoric mostly from the Republican side of the aisle by the likes of Georgia Representative Marjorie Taylor Green and Colorado Representative Lauren Bogart, who exhibited her Islamophobia once again the other day, and of course the events of January 6^th have raised the level of partisanship and outright fear among Congressional members to levels not seen in over 150 years. Many argue that today’s split in the body politic has no precedent, however if one consults Joanne B. Freeman’s THE FIELD OF BLOOD: VIOLENCE IN CONGRESS AND THE ROAD TO CIVIL WAR one might realize that though the current political climate is dangerous and is not conducive to legislating the pre-Civil War period from 1830 through 1861 dominated by the slavery issue was rowdier, more violent, with Congressmen carrying weapons to the floor physically attacking each other raising the level of polarization, lack of debate, distrust in Congress as a legislating institution and fear that does not compare to our current political divide.

Freeman’s narrative unveils the full scope of violence that existed in the pre-Civil War period in Congress. She writes that the era consisted of “armed groups of Northern and Southern Congressmen engaged in hand to hand combat on the House floor. Angry about rights violated and needs denied, and worried about the degradation of their section of the Union, they defended their interests with threats, fists, and weapons.” Southern Congressmen had long been bullying their way to power with threats, insults, and violence employing the tactic of public humiliation to get their way, particularly against anti-slavery advocates. At the time this type of Congressional behavior seemed routine and would soon shape the nation as people no longer seemed to trust the institution of Congress and many of its members. In time it would tear the nation apart. If any of this sounds familiar remember the elements of the pre-Civil War period are on display every day in Congress with its rhetoric, conspiracy theories, and fealty to a disgraced former president.

190128-news-lookingback — (President Franklin Pierce)

Freeman relies heavily on Benjamin Brown French, a House Clerk for a good part of the pre-Civil War period from 1833 on. The author argues that French was an excellent research tool as he experienced all aspects of the House for many years. He also kept a daily diary making him the perfect witness for the period. He described goings on in the Capitol, the mood on the House floor, stories heard, quirks of members, and numerous descriptions of brawls. Between 1828-1870 he filled 11 volumes and 3700 pages. Freeman uses this material very effectively as she develops her narrative, in addition to integrating French’s evolution from a purveyor of congressional compromise as a fervent supporter of the Democratic Party in the 1830s and early 1840s to a supporter of his close friend Franklin Pierce for the presidency whose views on slavery rested on accommodating the south. He would break with his friend of over 30 years due to Pierce’s support for the Kansas-Nebraska Act in 1854 which resulted in increased threats and violence in Congress. French would turn to the Republican Party where at first he preached moderation, but by 1860 exposure to a number of important abolitionists he firmly asserted Northern rights against the “Slave Power’s” encroaching grasp. He was more anti-slave power than anti-slavery and events in1860 pushed a man of moderation to extremes, compelling him to arm himself to defend the Republican cause.

Freeman’s research and analytical style has produced many important insights into the political climate of the pre-Civil War period and provides evidence of the extremism of the period evidenced by the behavior of Congressmen in addition to their racial, economic, and sectional beliefs. She highlights the most notable events of the period ranging from the territorial issues that arose because of the American victory against Mexico between 1846 and 1848, the elections of 1852, 1856, and 1860, the Compromise of 1850, the Kansas-Nebraska Act, the Dred Scott Decision, John Brown’s raid against Harper’s Ferry, and the election of Abraham Lincoln. In all cases she presents the northern and southern views of events and the actions taken by certain Congressmen which focused on threats, intimidation, bullying, and violence against each other highlighted by the caning of Massachusetts Senator Charles Sumner by South Carolina Democratic Representative Preston Brooks.

(Benjamin Brown French)

Numerous confrontations are described with the role of “dueling” and the “dough faces” (individuals who feared southern attacks) of northerners stressed to the point that “manhood” became the coin of the realm in Congress. Freeman describes the lengths that certain Northern congressmen went to avoid aggravating southerners over slavery in the name of party and national unity. This reinforced the southern view that northerners were weak and could be bullied into submission. Men like Louisiana Representative John Lawson and Henry Wise of Virginia would gleefully threaten and then attack other members of Congress if they felt insulted by anyone who questioned slavery and in effect anything that they deemed critical of the south. Freeman is correct when she argues that “southerners used violence as a ‘device of terrorism’ to force compliance to their demands – and they did so with pride.” The southern rationalization for their behavior was a code of honor – believing that they resorted to these tactics as a means to protect and defend “southern honor” for which they would allow no criticism.

Freeman presents a series of violent confrontations, some leading to duels, others to physical attacks between members usually instigated by southern Congressmen. Many of Freeman’s descriptions are entertaining, particularly her discussion of the conflict between Montana Democratic Senator Thomas Hart Benton and Mississippi Senator Henry Foote whose nickname was “hang man,” but the reality of what she says highlights the sectional conflict that could only be papered over by compromise and eventually would explode into Civil War.

The turning point begins with the debates related to the eventual Compromise of 1850 which temporarily settled many issues pertaining to the Mexican Cession following the war with our southern neighbor. The debates focused on sectional rights and soon became personal for each congressman and their constituents as bullying, degradation, honor, bravery, manhood, power, deference and pride all came to the fore. With the election of Franklin Pierce and his support for the Fugitive Slave Law many Democrats like French would leave the party and support the burgeoning Republican party.

Portrait of Charles Sumner 2 - Vivid Imagery-12 Inch BY 18 Inch Laminated Poster With Bright Colors And Vivid Imagery-Fits Perfectly In Many Attractive Frames — (Massachusetts Senator Charles Sumner)

Throughout the period newspapers played a key role as does the invention and use of the telegraph as events in Congress could be made available to the public in a very short time. The press controlled communication with constituents who would soon learn of the violence, ill will, and lack of legislation taking place. Reporters would heighten conflict in Congress and at home. With the Kansas-Nebraska Act which fueled “bloody Kansas,” the new sensationalist press had come to the fore. The result, after 1855 fights in Congress would spike, and it would evolve into an armed camp with members carrying pistols and bowie knives to the House floor each day.

Freeman is on point as she develops the emergence of the Republican Party which would promote a new kind of northerner who was now willing to fight back – to wrest control of Congress and the Union from the “Slave Power.” The bold rhetoric of the likes of Benjamin Wade, William Fessenden, Joshua Giddings, Charles Sumner and others was guaranteed to provoke a southern backlash. Violence was just another political tool and Republicans finally fought the southerners exchanging blow for blow. This would send a powerful message – a united north willing to fight for its interests and rights long violated by southerners.

What separates Freeman’s work from others is that she is able to unlock the emotional logic of disunion by showing how the divergent views of different geographical sections fostered distrust between various groups in Congress. The degradation which seemed like a daily occurrence educated a national audience to revile opposing opinions, individuals, and sections of the country.

Portrait of Thomas Hart Benton 1 - Vivid Imagery-20 Inch By 30 Inch Laminated Poster With Bright Colors And Vivid Imagery-Fits Perfectly In Many Attractive Frames — (Montana Senator Thomas Hart Benton)

In conclusion, I agree with historian David S. Reynold review in the New York Times (September 24, 2018); “Like other good historical works, “The Field of Blood” casts fresh light on the period it examines while leading us to think about our own time. Although incidents like the Sumner caning and the Cilley duel are familiar, the contexts in which Freeman places them are not. Nor are the new details she supplies. She enriches what we already know and tells us a lot about what we don’t know. Who knew that the Sumner incident, for example, was just one of scores of violent episodes in Congress?

Freeman doesn’t make explicit comparisons between then and today. She doesn’t have to. A crippled Congress. Opposing political sides that don’t communicate meaningfully with each other. A seemingly unbridgeable cultural divide. Sound familiar?

All that’s missing is an Honest Abe to save us.”

A satirical depiction of the moment when Senator Henry S. Foote drew his pistol on Senator Thomas Hart Benton. — (Congressional debate, 1850)

THE BOODLESS BOY by Robert J. lloyd

November 20, 2021szfreiberger Historical Fiction Leave a comment

Robert J. Lloyd’s first novel begins on New Year’s Day 1678. The setting is London, a city still recovering from the Conflagration or Great Fire eleven years previous with the appearance of numerous true historical figures as well as many fictitious ones. Charles II, occupies the English throne and rumors abound concerning Catholic plots to assassinate him. The title of the novel, THE BLOODLESS BOY is very apropos as the drama that hovers over the story surrounds the discovery of the body of a three year old boy near the Fleet River with wounds providing evidence that the boy had all of his blood drained from his body. What makes matters worse is that as the plot evolves other bodies are found in a similar state.

The two most important protagonists are Robert Hooke and Henry Hunt. Hooke is the Curator of Experiments of the Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge, Gresham’s Professor of Geometry, and Surveyor of London. Hunt, a former protégé of Hooke’s, now on his own is an Observator of the Royal Society of London and both men have been tasked by Charles II and Sir Edmund Bury Godfrey, the Justice of the Peace for Westminster to assist in solving the murders. Hooke is very reluctant fearing it will interfere in what he believes to be his greater work for the Society, and Hunt is more than willing to cooperate as he sees it as an avenue to emerge from under his former mentor’s shadow.

(Charles II, King of England)

Political intrigue and spies abound in the novel with the constant references to Popish plots against the government, assassination plans to remove Charles II, and a series of Ciphers that come into the possession of Hooke, Hunt, and others. As the plot meanders slowly for a number of chapters Hooke is very concerned that the murders may lead back to the earlier English Civil War and Charles II escape to France. Further, Lloyd expertly integrates the story of the Earl of Shaftsbury, the former Chancellor of the Exchequer, Lord Chancellor, and First Lord of Trade who upon writing a pamphlet arguing that the powers of the king should be restricted spends a year in the Tower of London until he expresses contrition for his beliefs. Despite this expression his life centers around seeking revenge. Another story that Lloyd weaves into the novel is that of Henry Oldenburg, Secretary of the Royal Society of London for the Improving of Natural Knowledge who commits suicide which Hooke and Hunt promise his widow to keep his cause of death a secret. The question is clear, what do the murders, political machinations, and suicide have to do with one another?

Lloyd possesses an excellent command of British history as is evidenced by his commentary centering on plots against the government, use of the views expressed by the historical figures he incorporates into his plot, and knowledge of natural philosophy and London and its environs. Lloyd uses Hooke and Hunt who make up an odd couple to solve the murders and their interactions provide a useful guide into scientific, philosophical, and political knowledge of the day. Lloyd’s descriptions of London as it existed after the devastating fire of 1666 which destroyed 13,200 houses, 87 Parish churches, The Royal Exchange, Guildhall, and St. Paul’s Cathedral are important as he reviews the architectural changes of the city focusing on older buildings that survived the fire, those that did not, and the newest structures that have been built or are under construction.

Lloyd’s use of late 17^th century language and his attention to the smallest detail add authenticity to the dialogue and atmosphere reflected in the story. Based on the author’s commitment to detail the reader can smell the leather tanneries, the smell of the food served in the taverns, and the snow and rain that was a staple for 17^th century London. Lloyd captures the ambiance of the Scientific Revolution and coming Enlightenment with references to the works of Sir Isaac Newton, William Harvey, and the writings of Thomas Hobbes and John Locke, among others.

The construction of the plot passes through many layers as Lloyd builds the tension surrounding the many conspiracies, murders, political machinations, religion, and ciphers at the same time the distrust the characters have for each drips in each interaction. The blend of fact and fiction make for an excellent historical mystery, and I hope to read Lloyd’s sequel which he is working on as soon as it is published. Let me add one caveat, after reading THE BLOODLESS BOY you are sure to develop a different view of the Scientific Revolution.

Lambeth Palace in the foreground, with the Thames and the City to the north forming the background — (17th Century London)

THE VOLUNTEER by Salvatore Scibona

November 4, 2021szfreiberger Historical Fiction Leave a comment

(Nixon makes the case for a U.S. invasion of Cambodia, April 29, 1970)

It is sometime in 2010 and a five year old boy has been abandoned at the Hamburg-Fuhlsbuttel International Airport. So begins Salvatore Scibona’s second novel, THE VOLUNTEER a searing story that spans over forty years from the Vietnam War to the post- 9/11 Afghanistan encompassing four generations of fathers and sons that takes the reader from Latvia, Vietnam, Queens, New Mexico among many locations. Once the boy is introduced wandering the airport as others try to determine his identity and story, Scibona introduces Elroy Heflin, a former convict who resorted to a myriad of lifestyles from stocking a grocery store, slinging heroine, sleeping in shelters and on the street to survive. He was soon arrested and joined the army to get his life straight. Later, he is assigned to the Office of Defense Cooperation attached to the American Embassy in Riga, Latvia.

Heflin will develop a relationship with a woman named Evija who upon becoming pregnant refuses Heflin’s offer to marry. Five years later while serving in Afghanistan, paying one- third of his pay in child support he learns that Evija has abandoned their son Janis who he sees twice a year and wants him to take custody. Heflin will take Janis to the airport to catch a flight to London but decides to leave him in a toilet cubicle at the Hamburg airport before continuing on his way home.

Scibona is a master of shifting scenes from one character to the next. In the first major instance he moves on from Heflin for about half the book and focuses on Mr. Tilly or Vollie Frade who was Heflin’s guardian until he had reached the age of eighteen. In telling Vollie’s life story we learn that he too was an unwanted son, born to aging cattle ranchers outside of Davenport, IA and at the age of seventeen forged his parent’s signature and joined the Marines winding up in Vietnam. Vollie is a complex character who is preoccupied with erasing his identity. Throughout the novel there are scenes where he seems to be taking himself away. For example, when he is a small boy his parents burn his clothes to prevent an outbreak of meningitis, for Vollie they are burning him. During his tenure in the Marines, he finds himself captured in Cambodia, a mission the government says does not exist – then does he? Later, during bouts of PTSD he again questions his existence.

(US soldiers burn a wooden structure in a village in eastern Cambodia in May 1970)

Scibona’s description of the war in Southeast Asia is reminiscent of the works of Dennis Johnson, Karl Marlantes, Michael Herr, and Tim O’Brien. It is raw in conception digging deeply into the stupidity of the American role in Vietnam. The scenes described as Vollie acts as a “Santa Claus” type of character driving in a convoy distributing mail, supplies, and anything else needed to the front lines reflects the absurdity of war. The discussion surrounding the US invasion of Cambodia and what occurs has a “Apocalypse Now” type of reality as do other scenes in the novel, particularly after he returns from Vietnam and Vollie finds himself ensconced in Queens, NY conducting a spy mission on a Social Security swindler who may turn out to be a Nazi fugitive.

Intergenerational misery dominates the plot as we move from place to place. A priest trying to crack the mysteries of Janis’ birth in Germany, a commune in Nevada and on and on. This is a very difficult novel to follow. At times it feels as if you are reading a Kurt Vonnegut novel taking place in Cloud Cuckoo Land. Despite a number of difficulties there are a number of portrayals of America that are priceless. The 1973 description of Queens, NY is priceless from the stoops, woman in house dresses, pickup basketball, church fellowship etc. Scibona has captured the neighborhood perfectly and this goes along with his striking social commentary.

The characters are lost in their own worlds especially Vollie whose view of life is one who is disappointed in himself and life in general as moving from one lie to another no matter how honest some appeared to be. Lorch, the spy handler’s quoting of scripture really plays no purpose, but he seems to do so each time he appears. Louisa, like Vollie is saddled with the burdens of the past as she cares for a baby out of a commune that practiced free love. Elroy, as he matures, like Vollie he replays scenes of a boyhood of abandonment.

The phrase that captures the essence of the novel is Vollie thinking about how “am I nobody from nowhere” as he and other characters try to maneuver in lives that do not turn out the way they want. The concept of identity appears repeatedly – for Vollie does he have one since he tries to cut himself off from everyone and everything.

To Scibona‘s credit his descriptions are often entertaining, but also sarcastic and draining. He has a keen eye for detail and many of his scenes seem similar to other works of literature and film. Overall, it was a difficult book to read, and I would only recommend it for someone who has a great deal of time to devote to understanding what the author is trying to say and enjoys a dark story that can be very painful.

(President Nixon announces the entry of US troops into Cambodia)

THE AMBASSADOR: JOSEPH P. KENNEDY AT THE COURT OF ST. JAMES, 1938-1940 by Susan Ronald

October 28, 2021October 28, 2021szfreiberger American Diplomatic History, Biography, United States Foreign Policy, World War II Leave a comment

Portrait Of The Kennedy Family At Home — (The Kennedys)

Anyone familiar with the life of Joseph P. Kennedy, the father of John, Robert, and Edward Kennedy is aware of the flaws in his character and life story. These elements of his biography have been fully explored in studies like David Nasaw’s THE PATRIARCH: THE REMARKABLE LIFE AND TURBULENT TIMES OF JOSEPH P. KENNEDY, Richard J. Whalen’s THE FOUNDING FATHER: THE STORY OF JOSEPH P. KENNEDY, and Doris Kearns Goodwin’s THE FITZGERALDS AND THE KENNEDYS: AN AMERICAN SAGA. Kennedy’s life story is punctuated with “serial philandering,” a relationship with organized crime, his years as a Wall Street operator highlighted by repeated insider trading, lobotomizing his daughter Rosemary, an appeaser’s isolationist view of the world that led to his opposition to the Truman Doctrine, the Marshall plan, a cozy relationship with J. Edgar Hoover, and a world view that saw fascism as a means of overcoming a depressed economy and a means of combating communism. All of these aspects of his life’s work have been dissected in the three previous works mentioned.

One area, his role as American Ambassador to the Court of St. James, a position where Nasaw describes Kennedy as the worst American diplomat serving US interests in England to have ever served across the Atlantic becomes the central theme of Susan Ronald’s latest book, THE AMBASSADOR: JOSEPH P. KENNEDY AT THE COURT OF ST.JAMES, 1938-1940. In her monograph, Ronald explores the charges against Kennedy that he was an anti-Semite, a Hitlerite appeaser, an isolationist, and an admirer of what the Nazis achieved in Germany and reaches the same damning conclusions as previous historians.

The Kennedy family mystique has been carefully crafted for decades by family members and their acolytes. However, Kennedy’s true belief that fascism was the inevitable wave of the future, leading him to consistently misrepresent American foreign policy as he intentionally ignored instructions from President Franklin Roosevelt and Secretary of State Cordell Hull as he substituted his own beliefs and opinions in place of those instructions.

(In this 1938 file photo, John F. Kennedy, right, poses aboard an ocean liner with his father Joseph P. Kennedy, center, U.S. Ambassador to Great Britain, and brother Joseph P. Kennedy Jr., left.)

Ronald was born in the United States and later emigrated to Great Britain is the author of a number of historical works. She has mined the riches of the British and American archives and has become very knowledgeable concerning the wealth of secondary materials that have been written on her subject. Ronald has prepared a readable work for the general public and a bit less so for the professional historian since she does not really uncover anything that is new and repeats arguments and thesis put forth by others. But to her credit the narrative offers a fresh synthesis concerning Kennedy’s work as ambassador as she mirrors a great deal of the work that has come before her new publication. Her views are supported by others that Kennedy lacked the “temperament, training, and willpower” to serve in his diplomatic post.

Ronald’s narrative concerns a man who by March 1940 had reached the pinnacle of his career in public service and by October of that year he would return to the United States to seek revenge against Franklin Roosevelt who he believed treated him poorly as Ambassador, ignored his views on the coming war, and not supporting him in a manner that he felt his position warranted. On numerous occasions Kennedy lectured the president and he would alienate the White Staff, members of the State Department, especially the Secretary of State, and the British diplomatic establishment and government.

Kennedy’s revenge centered around his support for the Republican nominee for president in 1940, Wendell Willkie, in part driven by his desire to run for president himself as a Democrat. After Roosevelt’s election to a third term in November 1940 Kennedy dedicated himself to keeping the United States out of the war offering opinions that argued the US could not survive economically if she joined the conflict.

The Curious Relationship of Joseph Kennedy, Sr. and Franklin D. Roosevelt — (Joseph P. Kennedy and President Franklin Roosevelt)

Kennedy was originally appointed Ambassador to Great Britain on February 18, 1938, as a reward for supporting Roosevelt’s candidacies for president in 1936 and earlier he was repaid for his support in 1932 as the head of the newly created Securities and Exchange Commission, a poor substitute for the office of Secretary of the Treasury which he coveted. Kennedy had no experience as a diplomat and did not have a foreign policy background. His driving ambition was to acquire wealth. From his youth he believed he was discriminated against because of his Irish-Catholic roots creating a chip on his shoulder to achieve societal acceptance. Once married his focus was to create a springboard for one of his sons to become president. Based on Kennedy’s abrupt, opinionated, and “undiplomatic” personality he did not possess the skills to head such an important foreign posting. Roosevelt was aware of Kennedy’s issues, and he wanted him out of the country where he believed he would cause less political trouble had he been chosen for a domestic position.

For Kennedy, the ambassadorship to a major Protestant country could help him improve his Bonafede which could assist him in running for president in 1940 as an Irish-Catholic. Kennedy was up against an administration whose members would have no use for him and resented his constant outspoken criticisms. What was in Kennedy’s favor was the need to negotiate a Reciprocal Trade Agreement with the British. New York Times reporter and Kennedy confidant, Arthur Krock pushed Roosevelt to appoint him by leaking an appointment before the decision was even made.

Once in England, Kennedy collaborated closely with British Prime Minister, Neville Chamberlain and supported his pro-fascist views and appeasement policies as he would do nothing to aggravate German Chancellor Adolf Hitler by preparing England for a war. Ronald does a respectable job laying out the views of the English royal family and members of the government who came to despise Kennedy. A case in point was King George VI detestation of Kennedy who feared if he returned to the United States he would rile up isolations to the detriment of England. Further, during the German aerial “Blitz” over London Kennedy acquired the nickname, “Jittery Joe” as he sequestered himself in a country estate and refused to inspect the damage that befell London. Overall, the British people viewed him as a coward.

She does equally well in describing Roosevelt’s true feelings toward Kennedy and tracing the highs and lows of their relationship. Kennedy’s “uninhibited manipulation of the press, his speaking out against the president, and passing his own opinions for State Department policy” had ruled him out for Roosevelt’s support, particularly after Kennedy “dressed down” the president in a White House meeting on June 23, 1938. In the end Roosevelt told Eleanor that “I never want to see that son of a bitch again as long as I live.”

(Rose and Joseph P. Kennedy in November, 1940)

Kennedy’s errors were myriad. He never informed Roosevelt, Hull, or the State Department that English Foreign Secretary Lord Halifax had broken with Chamberlain over the appeasement of Italian dictator Benito Mussolini in addition to Hitler. Further, while in New York he informed German Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop on June 10, 1938, that he would try and mitigate American press reports that criticized Germany and would work to keep the US out of any European war. Lastly, Kennedy’s anti-Semitic comments are legendary, particularly statements to Herbert von Dirksen, the German Ambassador in London.

Roosevelt and Hull would keep Kennedy out of the loop as much as possible because the last thing they wanted was for him to return home creating havoc as the administration worked to deal with an isolationist Congress and overturn Neutrality legislation. Interestingly, the British would have been glad to send him packing as they grew tired of his bombastic statements, defeatism, particularly before and after Dunkirk, including criticisms that they referred to as “Kennedyianas.”

Overall, Ronald’s book is a mixed bag. At times she delves into her topic as a true historian evaluating historical events, important characters and their motivations, and explaining British and American politics as the Germans moved closer to war. Obviously, the key figure is Joseph P. Kennedy whose machinations were designed to further his own political career and those of his sons, and the needs of his family. All the major figures of the period are on full display as are lesser ones.

It is the latter group that detracts from the narrative. There are a two chapters that deal with British society as well as references to the “London social season,” the types of china and cutlery used at dinner, the menus provided, the types of jewelry worn, estate/house decorations among many aspects of minutiae which after awhile become tedious and difficult to digest which detracts from her historical analysis. Ronald’s approach in this area serves no purpose for the overall thesis she presents and most of it could be excluded resulting in a more compact work of history. Ronald should pay less attention to the frivolities of British society and Kennedy family excursions and focus more on the critical issues that Kennedy’s tenure in England involved.

(Joseph and Rose Kennedy married in 1914 and had nine children together. Pictured above on a vacation to France in 1939 is (from left to right back row) Kathleen, Joe Jr, Rosemary, Rose , Edward (Ted), (left to right middle row) John (Jack), Eunice, Joseph Sr, Patricia, (left to right front row) Robert and Jean)

BILLY SUMMERS by Stephen King

October 20, 2021szfreiberger Mystery/Thrillers Leave a comment

Let me begin by admitting I am not a Stephen King fan. This is not a criticism, but I am not into horror stories or other genres Mr. King has employed in his novels. The one notable exception thus far is 11/22/63, a story line that deals with the “what ifs” as they pertain to the Kennedy assassination. As a retired historian it captured my interest from the outset. The same can be said for King’s latest novel, BILLY SUMMERS which also grabbed me from the first page, perhaps because of the references to the French novelist, Emile Zola, and Archie comic books, both favorites of mine.

In his latest book, King’s protagonist is an assassin who morphs into a writer. The one scary aspect of the story is that Billy Summers is haunted by books, not anything related to the supernatural. I especially enjoyed the references to numerous authors, many of which are my favorites, including Tim O’Brien, Cormac McCarthy, Robert Stone, Charles Dickens, and the previously mentioned Emile Zola.

Summers is lured out of retirement as an assassin for one last job for the mob. Interestingly, the mob boss who hired him wants him to pose as a writer. In his noir tale, King has created a dual plot. First is Summers planning and conducting the assassination of a Joel Allen who is about to go to trial. However, since Allen knows too much he must be eliminated. Once the assassination is completed he escapes from the scene which will prove to be quite interesting once Summers meets up with a gang rape victim, Alice Maxwell. Second, during his down time, Summers writes his biography which carries him to the depths of his emotions from witnessing the murder of his sister, killing his stepfather for the murder, his training as a Marine sniper, and his experiences in Fallujah, Iraq.

Title: Billy Summers (Spanish Edition), Author: Stephen King

King has created a character with a convoluted sense of justice. Summers believes in honesty and that people should not take things that do not belong to them. He firmly believes that people who commit egregious acts like the rape of Alice or not paying what they have agreed to, then trying to kill him, must pay, but in a different manner. Further, King creates a dichotomy in Summers’ mind as he sees himself as having a dumb self-juxtaposed to the bright person he really is.

Summers wonders if he can really write a fictionalized dumb self-version of his own life. As he attempts to write he opens the door to the pain of his past. In a sense Summers is authoring a novel within King’s overall story line. It is fascinating how King approaches this literary strategy. Summers is a victim of an Eriksonian identity crisis. He is a gun for hire named Billy Summers. To the inhabitants of where he lives he is the wannabe writer, David Lockridge. Lastly, living on Pearson Street, he is an overweight computer geek named Dalton Smith. In addition to suffering from an identity crisis, Summers must confront his PTSD because of his experiences in Iraq. Alice Maxwell also suffers from PTSD because of her gang rape experience, and it is interesting how King develops their relationship which dominates the second half of the novel.

King continues to be the master of sarcasm with a dry sense of humor. He integrates his own brand of current social commentary throughout the dialogue using Summers as a vehicle to remarks about our current state of politics and society, the coming pandemic, life in the suburbs, a FOX type network conglomerate, and of course Donald Trump.

For a trained assassin Summers is a character who it is easy to like. He exhibits a great deal of compassion and empathy, particularly toward Alice and other families he comes in contact with who will be shocked when they learn what he really is. King purposefully has created a warm human being on the one hand, a stone cold killer on the other.

As King develops Summers’ character the novel exhibits numerous twists and turns making it difficult to put the book down until you finish its 514 pages. Once Alice Maxwell is introduced the tenor of the story is changed and King mesmerizes the reader as he pushes on as his characters drive across America to the inevitable climax which we witness as the lonely figure makes what could be his last stand.

(Novelist Stephen King says writing is like leaving the ordinary world for a world of his own making: “It’s a wonderful, exhilarating experience.”)

ALPHA: EDDIE GALLAGHER AND THE WAR FOR THE SOUL OF THE NAVY SEALS by David Pilipps

October 16, 2021szfreiberger Iraq 2 Comments

(Special Operations Chief Edward “Eddie” Gallagher, a highly decorated Navy SEAL, is fighting murder charges tied to the death of an Islamic State operative in Iraq).

It is clear that after recent events that the American experience in Afghanistan did not end well. With the Taliban victory the future of the Afghan people, especially women are under a darkening cloud. In this environment the American military approach in the region has come under question and many of the soldiers who fought and the families of those who died or suffered life altering injuries must be wondering if their sacrifices were in vain. In this environment any book that deals with the American approach to war is timely. David Philipps’ new book, ALPHA: EDDIE GALLAGHER AND THE WAR FOR THE SOUL OF THE NAVY SEALS fits this category. Though the book focuses on the conduct of American troops in Mosul, Iraq, many of the Navy SEALS involved in the narrative fought in Afghanistan and their approach to combat was carried over to Iraq.

Philipps’ effort focuses on Navy SEALS of Alpha platoon and its Special Operations Chief Eddie Gallagher, in addition to a deep dive into the culture and daily lifestyle of the troops involved. Philipps’ work encompasses Gallagher’s last deployment as Chief of Alpha Platoon, SEAL team 7 whose 2017 classified mission was to assist Iraqi troops in clearing ISIS from the Iraqi city of Mosul. In the first few weeks of the deployment Gallagher saw more combat than he had in his first seventeen years in the Navy. After returning home he would be arrested and charged with murdering a wounded ISIS soldier, beginning a two year fight that culminated in a trial as to whether the accused was guilty or not. According to Phillips a battle over what the SEAL teams stood for, and what they would become with consequences that would reverberate for years.

According to the prosecution, Gallagher had become unglued, he lied to get medals, put men in danger to build up his own combat resume, shot at women and children in civilian areas, and murdered a prisoner in cold blood. According to Gallagher and his defense team the accusations stemmed from misguided and inexperienced members of Alpha who refused to go out on ops and created stories to cover up their own cowardness. When his team called him out, Gallagher claimed they were cowards.

(Navy Special Operations Chief Edward Gallagher leaves a military courtroom on Naval Base San Diego with his wife, Andrea Gallagher, on Thursday, in San Diego)

Phillips does an excellent job developing the culture that existed within the ranks of the Navy SEALS. He traces groups of SEALS who are referred to as “Pirates,” men who fought in World War II, Vietnam, Afghanistan, and Iraq whose attitude was clear – when dealing with unconventional war, be it terrorists, Viet Cong, the Taliban or ISIS the normal rules of war do not necessarily carry the day. The overriding theme that Philipps explores was that these “Pirates” operated in an environment where they could commit violent acts, even murder with no accountability where testosterone dominated. They believed that the new generation of SEALS was soft, and they had their own network that did not do justice to SEAL tradition. Eddie Gallagher was a “Pirate” and throughout his career, no matter the offence, leadership looked the other way and allowed him to rise through the ranks to the position he found himself in Mosul.

Throughout the deployment Gallagher did not perform the expected duties of a Chief, i.e., plans for the day, imparting tactical information, and played squads off against each other by bad mouthing men behind their backs. His goal seemed to be to take the role of a sniper, though the team had highly trained snipers and see how many he could kill, even firing randomly and using up ammunition. Most snipers would fire off one or two rounds per day, and some days did not fire off any rounds, Gallagher seemed to average well over twenty per day. Some of his strategies put team members in danger as he tried to build up his reputation as “a nasty ass killer.” Eventually team members began to feel he was a detriment to their mission, and he needed to be removed, particularly when he stabbed a wounded prisoner in the neck, watched him die and then took a photo holding him up by his hair remarking what a killer he was.

Philipps’ narrative is very troubling. He does yeoman’s work presenting the most important characters and explaining why their roles were so important to the drama that unfolded. Chief Petty Officer Craig Miller, Gallagher’s second in command will organize the men that will lead to accusations against their Chief; Lieutenant Jake Portier, the officer in charge refused to control or mitigate Gallagher’s behavior and threats; Special Operators First Class, Dalton Tolbert, Josh Vriens, and Dylan Dille, all snipers; Special Operator Corey Scott, a medic who witnessed the stabbing of the POW; Lieutenant Commander Robert Breisch, the commanding officer, an old friend of Gallagher stonewalled any investigation; Navy Special Warfare Group One Commodore Captain Matthew Rosenbloom, in charge of all SEALs on the West Coast who was appalled by Gallagher’s behavior and pushed for prosecution; Timothy Parlatore, a mob trained lawyer who led Gallagher’s defense team, are among the many individuals that Philipps introduces who will play important roles in the narrative.

(Map of Mosul city, northern Iraq)

The battle scenes reflect the absurdity and danger of urban guerilla warfare which are described in intimate detail. However, the most fascinating aspect of the book is the role played by Andrea Gallagher, Eddie’s wife, FOX News, other rightwing outlets, conservative politicians, social media, and of course President Donald Trump who was part of an organized a media campaign to win over the public to Gallagher’s innocence. In fact, as Philipps assiduously presents the trial it is clear that there are seven jurors, but there is an eighth one, President Trump who even before charges were formulated hinted strongly that he was about to pardon Gallagher.

At times Philipps’ work reads like a Hollywood movie manuscript, particularly when one of the witnesses, Corey Scott, one of the prosecutions main witnesses changes his story on the stand to assist Gallagher in large part because he was granted immunity from prosecution. In a scene that compares with Jack Nicholson in the film, “A Few Good Men” the prosecution is floored and is convinced they blew the case. The men who returned from Mosul all agreed that they had to end Gallagher’s career to protect the Navy from what he might do in the future now believed it may have all been for naught. Philipps describes the NCIS investigation, Gallagher’s threats to kill those who charged him, and the evidence that clearly showed what a danger and murderer he was are all on display. Finally, the Navy bureaucracy and politics played a key role in trying to derail any prosecution.

Philipps has authored a remarkable book based on voluminous research and a keen eye for detail and analysis. The story line is not very flattering to the Navy SEAL community which since 9/11 witnessed a society “man crush” on SEAL team operators. Hopefully the book will open the eyes of the public and pressure authorities to take seriously the actions of men like Eddie Gallagher and instill the discipline that the SEALS are trained to operate under, in addition to holding military leaders accountable for the actions of their troops. At a time when presidents eschew conventional warfare and turn to SEALS and other unconventional operatives with any luck their training, attitude, and approach to warfare will rest a bit more on the side of morality.

Special Operations Chief Edward Gallagher, seen during his 2017 deployment.

(Eddie Gallagher)

ALL THE FREQUENT TROUBLES OF OUR DAYS: THE TRUE STORY OF THE AMERICAN WOMAN AT THE HEART OF THE GERMAN RESISTANCE TO HITLER by Rebecca Donner

October 10, 2021szfreiberger Nazi Germany, World War II Leave a comment

How does one evaluate courage and commitment? In the case of Mildred and Arvid Harnack the answer lies in their role as part of the resistance to the Nazis before and during World War II. Mildred, an American lecturer at the University of Berlin who was working on her PhD in American Literature and her husband Arvid employed at the Ministry of Economics is German and they form a resistance group after Hitler assumed power called “the Circle.” It is through the work of this organization and sister organizations that they hoped to overthrow the Nazi regime before it can live up to its rhetoric. Their remarkable story is told by Mildred’s great-great-niece, Rebecca Donner in her book ALL THE FREQUENT TROUBLES OF OUR DAYS: THE TRUE STORY OF THE AMERICAN WOMAN AT THE HEART OF THE GERMAN RESISTANCE TO HITLER. The book’s title suggests that the narrative will focus mostly on Mildred, but in reality its presentation is much broader zeroing in on the actions of Arvid and a number of others in “the Circle.”

(Arvid and Mildred Harnack)

Donner’s book is a work of narrative history, but it comes across as a spy thriller, in addition to being the life story of a number of remarkable people. At the outset, Donner focuses on Mildred who she describes as an “enigma who inspired a range of contradictory conclusions about who she was and why she did what she did.” By 1932, Mildred had moved to Germany to teach at the University of Berlin which would be her foundation to gather like minded people to resist the Nazi seizure of power as she recognized early on the danger that Adolf Hitler presented. Donner integrates Mildred’s early years and her relationship with her husband Arvid into the web of spies that emerges. Mildred would soon be fired as a lecturer because her classes were deemed to be unacceptable to Nazi ideology particularly based on the American literary figures she presented in class. Arvid held a compassion for Germany’s poor and his goal was to address the problems of poverty and develop solutions. He would travel to the Soviet Union to learn about their economic approach and while there he would develop contacts that in the end would turn him into a Soviet spy against Germany.

Donner’s narrative encompasses most aspects of Hitler’s rise to the Chancellorship; the Nazi seizure power turning Germany into a dictatorship, Hitler’s expansionist foreign policy, and finally World War II. Donner offers little that is new as she recounts the most notable events be it the Enabling Act, the Night of the Long Knives, Kristallnacht, the seizures of the Rhineland, Austria, the Sudetenland, Czechoslovakia, the Nazi-Soviet Pact, and finally war. In doing so Donner integrates the resistance work of Mildred and Arvid and their compatriots until their arrest by the Gestapo in August 1942.

Donner writes in a manner that the words seem to flow off the page as she tells her story. She incorporates the latest research along with excerpts from important documents that include speeches, wording of leaflets, family letters, recruitment of assets, and the interrogations of prisoners by the Gestapo. As Donner chronicles her story she does an excellent job at providing the texture of German society before and during the war as the Nazis implemented their draconian program. Book burnings, racial laws, reducing women to being brood mares for the Nazi regime, violence and persecution of Jews that leads to the Holocaust, and Hitler and Goebbels’ ravings are all present.

LIBERATION DU CAMP DE CONCENTRATION DE RAVENSBRUCK 1945 — (Ravensbruck Concentration Camp for Women)

Donner’s research was enhanced by a number of sources. Though Mildred destroyed her journal and was careful that no one see it, Donner’s conversations with her grandmother Jane who spent time with Mildred as a young woman in Germany is important. Letters from Mildred would be found in a relative’s attic, and Donner was able to obtain observations by Mildred’s friends in letters and diaries, as well as trial records and memoirs by Mildred’s collaborators allowing Donner to tell a story that was mostly unknown.

Donner describes the recruitment and work of “Circle” members who engage in a myriad of activities to resist the Nazis that include posters across Germany, leaflet preparation and distribution, radio transmission of information obtained, newspapers, penetration of Hermann Goring’s staff and the Army High Command, providing evidence for atrocities, and finally spying for the United States and the Soviet Union. As the war progressed it was clear that Stalin was just as bad as Hitler, but as Harold Nicholson once noted, “the enemy of my enemy is my friend,” leading Arvid who viewed himself as an anti-fascist to assume the role of a Russian spy passing along secrets that Hitler was about to attack Russia in the spring of 1941 which Stalin would ignore, and providing intelligence that once Stalingrad was taken the Nazis would march on the Caucasus to have access to Rumanian oil.

There are a number of interesting character portraits in the book apart from the main characters. Martha Dodd, the daughter of William Dodd the American Ambassador to Germany story is fascinating as she engages in numerous affairs, spies on her own father, falls in love with a Russian spy who will be shot during one of Stalin’s periodic purges, among many escapades. Another interesting and more meaningful character is Donald Heath, eventually the First Secretary in the American embassy in Berlin and his son Donald, Jr. Donald, Sr. is Secretary of the Treasury Robert Morgenthau’s personal source for information concerning Hitler’s preparation for war. The Heaths and Harnacks become close friends and share intelligence to the point both families use the eleven year old Donald, Jr. as a courier to deliver important intelligence. Donner makes the excellent point that American intelligence before the war and early on was deeply flawed containing numerous gaps to base important decisions.

By 1942 the Gestapo arrests the key members of “the Circle,” that include Mildred and Arvid, Liberto and Harro Schultze-Boysen, and Greta and Adam Kuckhoff. Of these individuals Hitler will harbor an extreme hatred for Mildred and though all are tortured she is the victim of the most extreme form of punishment. Donner will spend a great deal of time describing their fate once they are arrested and most exhibit a remarkable amount of courage knowing full well they will be executed.

In appearance Mildred Harnack does not appear to be a spy. She is an American educator teaching in Berlin. She is a shy bookish individual and doesn’t seem to possess the tools to be a focal point of German resistance and as one Nazi official stated, her story would make a wonderful novel. However, her work and those of those who were a part of “the Circle” is testimony to what impels people to act for what they believe and in the end are willing to pay for those beliefs and actions with their lives.

(Mildred Harnack)

THE HISTORIANS by Cecilia Ekback

October 3, 2021szfreiberger Historical Fiction Leave a comment

(Kiruna mine from which the novel is based upon)

Swedish born author Cecilia Ekback has written a very complex and believable novel that focuses on the possibilities of a Scandinavian Reich that could have emerged during the Second World War. At a time in the publishing world when there is no shortage of World War II based historical fiction, Ekback’s new book THE HISTORIANS stands out for its character and plot development and the creation of a scenario that is quite credible.

Set in Sweden during World War II the book reintroduces that country’s controversial role during the conflict. Claiming neutrality, the Stockholm government accommodated the Nazi regime by allowing the passage of over two million German soldiers through Sweden. Further, Swedish iron ore shipped to the Berlin regime was critical for Nazi wartime production of steel, and lastly Swedish railroads allowed the transport of the German 163^rd infantry division with its equipment to pass from Norway to Finland. It was only after 1944 with the German war effort heading for defeat did Sweden share military intelligence and allow the allies to use Swedish airbases. Hardly the actions of a country that could be relied upon during war.

The book opens in 1943 with the Nazi regime pressuring Sweden to increase its supply of iron ore. Laura Dahlgren, part of the Swedish trade delegation negotiating iron ore access with the Germans discovers the body of Britta Hallberg, a former classmate at Uppsala University and a member of a close knit group of five friends, tortured and murdered. It seems that Britta had become a “sparrow” or Swedish spy whose job was to get close to German diplomats, but was also finalizing her university thesis entitled, “Nordic Relations Through the Ages: Denmark, Norway and Sweden on a New Path” which was delivered to Jens Regnell, Secretary to the Minister of Foreign Affairs after her death. The question was why the thesis was delivered to Regnell, and did her research have anything to do with her murder.

The Royal Swedish Ministry of Foreign Affairs

As Ekback develops her dramatic plot another death takes place that of Daniel Jonsson, an archivist at the Swedish Foreign Ministry. First it seemed a suicide, but as evidence accumulated it was clear it was murder. When a bomb goes off in Dahlgren’s apartment it is clear that anyone who investigates Swedish racial policy is a threat and are in danger.

The core of the plot revolves around a meeting that took place in 1914. Referred to as the “The Three Kings Meeting” it was made up of monarchs and foreign ministers of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. They discussed the possibility of the creation of a Scandinavian Reich under one strong leader based on the supremacy of the Nordic race. A committee was created to study the feasibility of the concept. By 1939 a second meeting was held and the program was formally shut down, but in reality the ideas related to a new Reich remained to be implemented by powerful forces within the Swedish bureaucracy and body politick to not only carry out the unification of the governments involved but also to ethnically cleanse and eliminate the Sami, an indigenous people who lived in the northern part of the Scandinavian peninsula as well as parts of Norway, Finland, and Russia. It is estimated they numbered between 50,000 and 100,000.

As Dahlgren and Regnell investigated they learned that it was possible that certain elements were conducting human experiments on the Sami, with many people disappearing from the Blackasen Mountain area where iron ore was mined.

An image posted by the author. — (the author)

An interesting component to Ekback’s novel is how she integrates Nordic myths and symbols into the plot. The vehicle she chooses is the unlikely friendships among Dahlgren, Britta Hallberg, Erik who was a hothead and a fool in many ways, Matti, who seemed sober, totally focused on his job for Finland, and Karl-Erik, who seemed to be the brightest during their debates while at the university. During these discussions Sweden’s racial policy emerges, and after Britta is murdered they grapple with how best to discover what happened to her and why. When the remaining four try to find the underlying cause of what is going on, unimaginable things occur.

As Ekback develops her novel a number of important questions emerge. First, were members of the State Institute for Racial Biology conducting experiments on the back side of the Blackasen mountain? Second, was there an actual plot to create a Scandinavian Reich and purify the “lesser” Nordic types? Third, why were authorities who investigated Britta’s murder being stymied? Fourth, who were the people who were trying to create the new Reich? Lastly, do these elements still exist in Swedish society?

Ekback’s approach in creating her story was to start slowly introducing a myriad of characters that at times is difficult for the reader to digest. As she moves along her storyline develops momentum as the reader begins to wonder if this type of scenario was actually feasible. Every author of historical fiction faces the dilemma as to how far from “historical truth” they can deviate from and not lose their readers. Ekback takes the reader right up to the line between truth and fiction and fashions a searing novel that may be speculative in nature but in the end is quite satisfying and sheds light on Sweden, whose machinations during World War II are part of the historical record as certain individuals dallied with “Nazi leanings.” Ekback has authored a blistering novel, once you get past the early development of the plot, it will be difficult to put down.

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